Hypothesis

literally the word hypothesis means something which is assumed to be true . A statistical hypothesis is a tentative statement logically drawn relating to population parameter.

According to professor morris hamburg ” A hypothesis in statistics is simply a quantitative statement about a population . it is an assumption which my or may not be true about a population parameter .

Standard Error

standard deviation of the sampling distribution is known as standard error. it is so called because it measures the sampling variability due to chance or random forces . it is also known as standard error of estimate . with the help of standard error of Mean, a decision maker can easily understand the scattering of sample mean and evaluate the precision of a sample .

Uses of standard error

• it is used as an instrument in testing a given hypothesis .
• it provides n idea about the unreliability of sample
• the reciprocal of standard error is I/SE . it is a measure of reliability or precision of the sample
• with the help of standard error we can determine the limits with in which the parameter values are expected to lie .

BBA Corporate Accounting Redemption of securities Notes

Calicut University 3rd Semester BBA Corporate Accounting Module III PDF Notes

Calicut University 3rd Semester BCOM Corporate Accounting Module I PDF Notes

redemption-of-securities-notes-for-bba-module-iiiDownload

Barriers in Communication

There are multiple barriers in the communication process. These barriers result in
distortion and misunderstanding of the intended meaning/communication. The barriers can be physical,
psychological, emotional, cultural, linguistic etc..

1. Physical barriers: These are a result of our surroundings. Noises, technical disturbances, outdated
   equipments, distant locations, office doors, separate areas for people of different areas, large office spaces,
   old technologies and lack of appropriate infrastructures can lead to problems in transmission of message.
2. Organisational structure barriers: Communication problems occur when the systems, structures and
   processes in the organisation are not clear or have gaps in them. If the chain of command is unclear, a
   person may not know whom to contact for a particular issue. Inappropriate information transmission
   systems, lack of supervision, and unclear role and responsibility demarcations lead to confusion and
   inefficiency.
3. Language barriers: Lack of knowledge of the language can create many obstacles in communication.
   Literally, people from different regions and countries may interpret the same words differently. Difficult
   words, subject specific terminologies, unfamiliar expressions and ambiguous words , create hurdles in
   communication . It is also a fact that the linguistic ability of various people in the work place is different.
   Some maybe proficient in the language while others may possess just basic skills. Therefore, it is important
   to use clear, simple easily understood language in most of your official communications.
4. Cultural barriers: Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different
   cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people. Understanding various cultures in this
   era of globalisation is an absolute necessity as the existence of cultural differences between people from
   various countries, regions tribes and, religions, where words and symbols may be interpreted differently can
   result in communication barriers and miscommunications. Multinational companies offer special courses
   and documents to familiarise their staff with the culture of the country where they are based for work.
   In addition, every organisation too has its own work culture. In fact, departments within the same company
   may also differ in their expectations, norms and ideologies. This can impact intra and inter organisational
   communication.
   The same principle applies to families and family groups, where people have different expectations
   according to their background and traditions leading to friction and misunderstanding. A very simple
   example is of the way food is served by a member of a family. It can be the cause of appreciation or
   displeasure.
5. Emotional barriers: One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier.
   Anger, fear of criticism or ridicule, mistrust of person, suspicion of intentions, jealousy, anxiety and many
   more feelings and sentiments we carry within us, affect our communication ability and quality. A person who
   is upset and disturbed cannot pass on or receive information appropriately and objectively. His/her emotions
   will colour his/her perception and assessment of the communication.
6. Attitude barriers : Personal attitudes of employees can affect communication within the organisation. A
   proactive, motivated worker will facilitate the communication process, whereas a dissatisfied, disgruntled,
   shy, introvert or lazy employee can delay, hesitate in taking the initiative, or refuse to communicate. Attitude
   problems can be addressed by good management and regular interaction with staff members.
7. Perception Barriers: Each one of us perceives the world differently and this causes problems in
   communicating. The same content is seen and interpreted differently by two people and therein lies the root
   cause of miscommunications and misunderstandings.

Characteristics of effective communication

Formal and Informal Communication

Essentials of valid consideration

Consideratipon Definition

Consideration is the price of the contract and it can be right, interest or responsibility etc. According to section 2(d) of the Indian Contract Act “when at the desire of the promisor, promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing or does or abstains from doing or promises to do or to abstain from doing something, such act or abstinence, or promise is called a consideration for the promise.”.

Essentials

1. Something should be done or abstained from doing at the desire of the promisor only.
2. Promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing something at the desire of the promisor.
3. It can be Past, Present or Future.
4. It is not necessary that Consideration must be adequate.
5. Consideration must be Real and Not Illusory or Impossible.
6. It must be Lawful.

Read more

Types of Communication

What is communication

Solved problems on income from salary

salaries-solved-problemsDownload